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ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES - Volume 2, Issue 2, Aug-Sep 2021

Pages: 162-177

Date of Publication: 20-Sep-2021


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Nigerian Youth, Migration Narratives and Social Media: A Perspective

Author: Yemisi Olawale

Category: Sociology

Abstract:

Migration – either domestic or international has attracted scholarly debates. This is understandable. Given the increasing inter-connected nature of the globe and the increasing nature of human mobility, it becomes necessary to understand its developments. Among such developments is the increasing role of the internet and social media. The availability of information and communication technologies (ICTs), especially the Internet, Laptops, Smartphones, and Social Media Apps, have continued to influence migrants’ decisions. Among Nigerian youths, the role of social media cannot be underestimated. It has continued to influence their decision on when, how, and where to migrate. In the context of this study, the article draws its inspiration from the “Then and Now Twitter” Hashtags – a social media event that presents a picture of a Nigerian youth career at ‘home’ and in the ‘diaspora’ to analyse the influence of social media on global migration, migration decision making and behaviour to migration discourses. The article relies on secondary sources of data drawn from migration studies in form of books, peer-reviewed journals, and internet sources. The article also includes data gathered by the researchers from our primary interaction with and observation of social media (Facebook, Twitter, and News Media). The data were subjected to intense review and content analysis to arrive at an objective conclusion.

Keywords: Keywords: Migration, Migrants, Youth, Social Media, ICT, Nigeria.

DOI: 10.47362/EJSSS.2021.2208

DOI URL: https://doi.org/10.47362/EJSSS.2021.2208

Full Text:

Introduction

Setting out on this research, it is important to briefly state the motivation. On 27 January 2021, the researchers made a discussion about a trending issue on Facebook and Twitter with the hashtag ‘Then and Now’ – (a key concept in this chapter). The underlying assumption of ‘Then and Now’ was a mixture of pictures of African migrants especially youth showing off their status in Africa and their upward social mobility in the West (developed countries are often considered greener pastures). The researchers discussed at the early hours of 28 January 2021 the implication of such information for irregular migration and youth unceasing effort to reach Europe. Hence, the contribution of this chapter is based on a deep-seated enquiry of what such social media information means for youth migration in Africa. It is an objective effort to explain the reality of migration and its narratives from the social media (digitalisation) perspective.

Migration – either domestic, intra-continental or international migration has become a flashpoint in global international relations discourses. This is understandable. Given the increasing inter-connected nature of the globe, human mobility has been on the increase. According to the International Organisation for Migration 2019 report, there are 272 million international migrants worldwide or 3.5% of the world’s population are on the move. Between 2000 and 2019, the number of international migrants in Africa increased from 15.1 million to 26.6 million, the sharpest relative increase (76%) among all major regions of the world.[i] Such a figure has shown that the field of migration requires continuous effort in understanding the emerging dynamics of contemporary migration. Among these emerging dynamics is the role of social media. In other words, researches on migration in a globalised and digital age are giving way to an increasingly expanded focus on multifarious perspectives among which social media has assumed an indisputable role.

The twenty-first century has also witnessed the increasing role of the internet and social media as an important tools shaping peoples’ everyday life. In other words, the availability of information and communication technologies (ICTs), especially the Internet, laptops, smartphones, and social media, have continued to influence humans socio-economic and political decision.[ii] Apart from the influence of remittances, migrant testimonies which constitutes what the researchers termed ‘inherent traditional push factors’, the role of social media cannot be underestimated. By the nature of social media, it has affected migration in two major ways. One, it facilitates people’s decisions to migrate, while on the other it changes people’s attitudes to migration by exposing the hazards that are associated with irregular migration.[iii] In other words, ‘deciding when, how, and where to migrate depends on available information about the possibilities in a potential location.[iv] In the context of this study, our focus is on the latter. What is the implication of social media on global migration? Does social media have an influence on migration decision-making process? If yes, to what extent has social media changes people’s behaviour are among many more questions that come to mind when these issues are interrogated.

The chapter is structured into four parts apart from the introduction and the conclusion. First, it will discuss the major concepts. Second, it will look at the Migration trend in Africa with a particular focus on the Youth with a significant population as skilled and unskilled labour. Third, it will explore how social media with a particular focus on the then and now concept contributes to migration discourse and decisions among youth in Nigeria. The chapter adopts a historical research methodology and relies on secondary sources of data drawn from studies on migration presented in form of books, peer-reviewed journals and internet sources. The research also includes data garnered by the researchers from our primary interaction with and observation of social media (Facebook, Twitter and News Media). The data were subjected to intense review and content analysis to arrive at an objective conclusion.

Conceptualisation: Social Media

For this study, two concepts are important for discussions namely social media and migration. Social media global impact has become inextricably linked to everyday life and living thereby becoming an indisputable agent of change.[v] By media, it entails ‘channels of communication which essentially serve to connect the sender and receiver of information while constituting perceptions and definitions of social reality as well as normality for public, shared life.[vi] In other words, media are frontiers of societies because it provides the platform for discussion and dialogues on social and economic issues (among others) between members of the society.[vii] Social media organs such as Twitter and Facebook have, for example, continued to play a pivotal role in exposing the diverse aspect of human socio-economic activities. Among this role is how it is restructuring the matrices of migration in Africa through its use by the African Diaspora.

Social media according to Kietzmann et al. ‘defined it as a platform which employs mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms via which individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss and modify user-generated content.’ Kaplan et.al. also considers social media as a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content. From Kaplan and Kietzmann conceptualisation, the study identified the user-generated content vis-à-vis socio-economic and political elements of human relations at every level. Ngal and Kingsley divides social media into six different parts namely:

Table 1: Social Media Classification

Social Media Tools

Description

Example

Media sharing sites

Allow users to upload, organize and share multimedia materials with people and/or selected community.

YouTube, Vimeo, Instagram, Flickr

Blogs/Microblogs

Allow authors to post their writings or information on the Web, hoping someone will read them.

Blogger, Twitter, Plurk, Tumblr, Weibo.

Social bookmarking sites

Allow users collaboratively use tags to annotate and categorize the web content they found interesting.

Delicious, Pinterest, Digg, Foursquare.

Virtual/Online Communities

Allow individuals to share specific information and interest through interactive tools on a website.

Lonely Planet, Yahoo Answers

Social networking sites

Allow individuals to build a social relationship and interest among friends and acquaintances.

Facebook, LinkedIn, Google+

Virtual worlds

Provide computer-simulated environments where people can live in a virtual world

Second Life, Active World, Onverse

Source: Adapted and modified from Ngai et al.[viii] Kingsley et.al.,[ix]

Social media uptake has been on the increase in Africa. Majama argued that “the digital face of Africa is mobile”, with around 82% of the population in Africa having a mobile connection in 2018.[x] Also, in the Internet World Stats, there were just above 204 million Facebook subscribers in Africa as of December 2017.[xi] Among information communication and technology devices that has inextricably linked Africa to social media is mobile phones. Mobile phones are referred to as the new talking drums of everyday Africa.[xii] Social media applications like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, WhatsApp, blogs and many others, which did not exist some years ago, now form an integral part of today’s communication landscape in much of Africa.[xiii] The focus of this research is on social media potency, influence on migration. Hence, social media, arguably, is not only emerging as the most potent and pervasive communication tool today with abundant possibilities for information dissemination but also its analytics are increasingly becoming a vital source of information.[xiv]

Inherited Dreams of ‘Greener Pasture’: Youth Migration in Nigeria

The concept of migration has also received significant attention. It is not a new phenomenon but rather has continued to emerge in dynamics. The twenty-first century has been described as the age of migrations considering the volume of population movements across national, regional, and continental borders. The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural organization-defined migration as a process induced by economic and social mobility in terms of labour migration induced by higher wage level, family and livelihood migration, and unpleasant circumstances such as escapes from war, political and religious persecution.[xv] Migration can also be divided into voluntary and involuntary migration. Voluntary migration usually refers to displacements or movements in search of economic opportunities. Forced migration, on the other hand, is associated with some type of threat or concern that results in people moving from their homes for reasons of security, safety, or livelihood.[xvi]

Migration within and outside Africa is not new. It is an age-long tradition that permeates centuries and decades of human existence. As a result of Africa history matrices with migration, it is sometimes referred to as an immensely mobile continent.[xvii] Even, the World Migration Report of the International Organization for Migration described Africa as the continent with the most mobile populations in the world.[xviii] Migration in Africa for easy comprehension is often examined based on period phases: pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. The dynamics of migration across these periods are summarised below:

Population movements have played an important part in shaping Africa and the rest of the world for thousands of years. Environmental, economic, cultural and political changes led to large historical migrations which helped form African societies and ways of living. These patterns were disrupted and transformed by European colonialism which brought economic exploitation, political domination and cultural change. The Atlantic slave trade devastated much of western and central Africa while playing a crucial part in the development of the Atlantic economies. The underdevelopment and impoverishment left behind when colonialism receded after 1945 provide the context for today’s migrations within and from Africa.[xix]

In the West Africa sub-region, international migration is also prevalent than any other region on the continent.[xx] African Union stats shows that 84% of migration within West African is internal, migrants originating from the region also target Europe as the final destination.[xxi] Apart from the intra-African migration which has been facilitated by close cultural ties and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) free movement of people within the region have further intensified such process. Migrants from West Africa sub-region embark on international migration either through the formal process (official process) or through an informal process otherwise referred to as irregular migration.[xxii] The study will focus on the push factors that have continued to propel this migratory trend in West Africa with a particular focus on Nigeria.

Nigeria position in Africa at independence was not contested. The phrase ‘giant of Africa’ emerged out of the country enormous human and natural resources as well as its leadership role in the Africa independence movement years. However, this leadership identity has been lost as a result of nation building crisis that has characterised decades after independence. Among the important indices that have been used to measure the state retrogression is the effort been made by her youth to migrate to the global north. It has thus become difficult to browse on social media without seeing testimonies of Nigerians who not only celebrate their exist from Nigeria but also encourages the youth of their age to strife hard to migrate to the global north. It is on such premise that irregular migration has continued to be on the increase alongside the Libya-Mediterranean route.

Like several other social science concepts, youth has been defined based on numerical figures. For instance, Nugent defines youth as all the people between ages 10 and 24. This covers a wide range of experiences and transitions that include an early phase (between ages 10 and 14), a middle phase (between 15 and 20), and a later phase (between 21 and 24).[xxiii] Apart from the numerical approach to defining a youth, scholars like Ikelegbe adopted a descriptive approach. According to him, “youth ordinarily is a category of early adulthood, emerging inactivity and involvement in society but somewhat limited by societal values and some levels of dependency and perhaps agency”.[xxiv] However, the present study defines a Nigerian youth from the numerical age of eighteen (18) as stated in the 1999 constitutions of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. However, it agrees with Ikelegbe descriptive definition

Youths are makers and breakers of any society. They constitute an appreciable workforce, skilled and unskilled labour. As rightly observed by Chukuezi, the youth role in society is two-dimensional. One, the youth can constitute a reservoir of energy and dynamism for any national struggle or campaign if they are correctly guided, mobilised and fully integrated into the social fabric of the nation. Two, they may also constitute a threat to national survival and stability if they are allowed to drift, are unemployed, undisciplined and morally bankrupt.[xxv] The case of youth migration from Nigeria fall in the second category. While a substantial amount of youth has become social liabilities and deviant with their participation in insecurity problems such as militancy in the Niger Delta, insurgency in the north, kidnapping, herdsmen menace, armed robbery and cultism, others have migrated to the global north in search for greener pastures.

Youth are at the forefront of spurring ongoing changes in the configurations of migration in and from West Africa.[xxvi]They constitute a substantial volume that emigrated from the agriculture-rural areas to urban centres in search of a white-collar jobs, likewise on railway and construction sites, agricultural plantations among others. In the post-colonial era, youth migration also constitutes an important discourse. Socio-economic and political factors have contributed to post-colonial youth migration. Using push and pull theory of migration, factors such as the absence of enabling and sustainable environment, insecurity, poverty and decline in livelihood rate. On the pull aspect, prospects for getting a better education, increasing earning power, and improving living conditions through access to better infrastructure and public amenities, security, states welfare constitutes youth motivation for migration. Todaro described the push and pull factor thus

Individuals migrate because they think that they can improve their own lives or those of their families by doing so. Economic migration is triggered by the knowledge (or belief) that better economic opportunities exist in some other place. It follows that where regional and local economic inequality is considerable, people are likely to migrate if it is possible for them to do so. Factors such as poverty, lack of economic opportunity, land shortage and low living standards at home function as push factors, while prosperity, opportunity, available employment and higher living standards in the place of destination are pull factors. The individual's decision to migrate involves a process of weighing up potential costs and benefits.[xxvii]

In the early post-independence years, the search for educational opportunities was a primary factor that led to the exodus of Nigerian youth. Either as a response to the emerging Nigeria education system during this period or because of the declining standards of the educational system in contemporary time, it has served as a migration basis for youth. In the 1970s most of the Nigerian youth who migrated abroad stayed permanently. The figure increased at the height of the Structural Adjustment Programme in the 1980s that by the 1990s, there were more Nigerian academics in the United States than in Nigeria. In the United Kingdom, similar events occurred. As a result of the emerging phase of human affairs, migrating from Nigeria was not in totality a do or die affair as it is now yet, it was highly diverse.

Apart from education, increasing poverty and unemployment scale in Nigeria as in other African countries has contributed to the youth migration wave in Nigeria. In 2018, World Poverty Clock reported that Nigeria has more people living in extreme poverty than any other country in the world. Additionally, in the third quarter of 2016, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2016) revealed that the overall unemployment rate had risen to 13.9%, with the youth unemployment rate has risen to 25% from 24% in 2015. These economic trends are not particular to contemporary times, since the 1980s Structural Adjustment Programme conditionalities effect on Nigeria social and economic space, the urge to migrate among youth has risen more than before. Youth in Nigeria have not benefitted from the political and economic system of the country. Their participation is low in politics and the ‘old guard’ still dominate the political process, increasing unemployment have characterised their post-academic years which the economic hub is not sustainable. At the heel of political affairs is the empowerment programmer targeted for youth contribution to the society. However, the increasing politicisation of Nigeria affairs has disrupted such a process. Hence, many Nigerian youths are increasing seeking avenues to migrate to the global north. The absence of an enabling environment to thrive have also driven millions of youth abroad. The lack of an effective and efficient social security system that can support youth socio-economic and political aspirations is another key motivation for youth migration.

Another phase of Nigerian youth in the post-colonial phase is irregular migration. In a study carried out by Ikuteyijo on irregular migration among youth, his findings reveal that Nigeria youth are increasingly patronising irregular migration otherwise known as ‘Europe by Road’.[xxviii] Nigerian youth participation in irregular migration has become another agent of brain drain. In 2016, over 20,000 youths involved in the Mediterranean Sea crossing were reported to be from Nigeria.[xxix] In addition, in the first quarter of 2017, hundreds of irregular Nigerian migrants were deported from various destinations, including Italy, Libya, and South Africa. Overall, in comparison to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, irregular migrants from Nigeria dominate migration to Europe and North America and represent 25.5% of all West African migrants living in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries.[xxx]

Youth Migration, Social Media and ‘Then and Now” Hashtags

Youth Migration – regular or irregular in Nigeria is a mirror of challenges facing the state in the process of nation-building. As I have advanced in recent research on the need for African states to engage a migration-led strategy in their development initiatives either through intra-African migration or diaspora option, Nigeria successive government in this aspect seems to be faced with several challenges especially in the sphere of establishing a partnership with her diaspora. Suffice to note that considering the effort put by youth in the process of migrating to the global north, Nigeria development prospects may face increasing shortcomings. Hence the objective realities of Nigeria development have remained vague in the light of underdevelopment and nation-building challenges.

The relationship between social media and migration especially in the light of information and communication technology and globalisation cannot be contested. A survey of works of literature have focused on establishing a link on how diaspora use of social media can help improve their relationship with their Country of Origin (COO) especially their relatives and kinsmen,[xxxi] others focused on discussing how social media can avail the diaspora opportunity to participate in the affairs of their country[xxxii] while some focused on how social media help create a transnational identity and diaspora nationalism. These studies have contributed to our understanding of diaspora-state relation and contemporary discourse about migration however, using the ‘then and now’ hashtags, the present study explores how social media help an individual especially in the global south of Africa to create an ‘imagined life’ in the global north as well as affects their migration decision—making process. Hence, it offers more insight into a radical shift in examining migration in a digital age.

Social media influences on migration decision goes a long way than ‘migrant testimonies process’ – a situation whereby migrants’ returnees during the festive period or important seasons gives testimonies and encourage people in their community to migrate. In the contemporary period, access to social media tools – Facebook, Twitter, Instagram make such influence. Hence, social influence migration through inspiration, screening and sorting, operational and emotional preparation, and post-processing.[xxxiii] This can be said of Nigerian Youth. At the inspiration phase, many youths became aware of how geographical distant place looks like, some of their socio-economic and political systems. At this stage, the youth begins to project themselves in these places and create an imagined life and lifestyle through critical and reflexive thinking of what their presence and lifestyle would be. Hence Mai rightly observes when he asserts that ‘using the “diasporic function”[xxxiv] of transnational media, we inspired ourselves to create a “migratory project,” a plan to migrate for self-actualization.[xxxv]

At the screening and sorting stage, youth, having scrolled, read about geographic distanced places, begin to scrutinise, asking questions about why they should migrate to some of these places and no other. Hence, the research is more on social media perspectives and reviews of these places through social media. Hence, when a particular state or city gains wider recognition or have become represented by more social media user through ‘Google Location’ and positively represented in everyday media, Nigeria youth perceive them as a more attractive migration destination. A suitable example is United Arab Emirates (UAE). The operational and emotional preparation involves individual perception about the imagined states and cities. For instance, although some places are represented in the media, we may plan to migrate to a less-discussed areas in media. The last phase of post-processing involves formal or informal efforts made to migrate to one‘ imagined greener pasture’.

The ‘Then and Now’ Hashtags was a product of the everyday life of Nigerian youth at home and in the diaspora use of social media. It represents a cross-section of their life in Nigeria and the global north. It involves a process through with the diaspora began to upload a picture of their life in Nigeria before they migrate alongside their present realities. The event took a pattern of mixing their Nigeria and diaspora picture while putting the hashtags of ‘then and now. These situations led to a mixed feelings among Nigerian youth at ‘home’. Photographs are not frozen moments but ongoing duration, a form of knowledge and memory that constitutes open-ended discussion and unresolved exposures. The hashtags were considered a pressure by some while others congratulate them while stating their effort to migrate as well. Other uploaded their picture in Nigeria showing their social mobility while other blamed their hardships on the Nigeria state.

A survey of the ‘Then and Now’ Twitter hashtags reflects two categories of individuals with different influences under the context of social media. Apart from the diaspora who mixed their picture to show their social mobility, there are also individuals who can be described as ‘migration optimists’. The optimist perspective of migration and migrants revolves around the socio-economic and political disparities and livelihood between the global north and the global south. In other words, the optimist also considered a ‘migrant’ as a ‘rational actor’ who decides to migrate based on opportunities differentials between these places of origin and destination. Some Twitter hashtags read thus:

‘The then and now trend got me thinking a lot…How can one be like roasted fish in Nigeria (then) and be like fresh fish (abroad)’ (Twitter Comment, posted 4th March 2021, accessed, 28 April 2021)

God when am I leaving Nigeria o… All these then and no thing don they gimme apatenshon. Twitter Comment, posted 4 March, 2021, accessed, 28 April 2021).

All these then and now pictures I’m seeing. If I mistakenly leave Nigeria. It is over for you people o. on a normal I set die. Now blow be abroad breeze? Omox789. Twitter Comment, posted 4 March 2021, accessed, 28 April 2021)

The analogy of a ‘roasted and fresh fish’; ‘God when am I leaving Nigeria’; and ‘if I mistakenly leave Nigeria’ shows how social media influence individual decision to migrate. The roasted ‘and fresh fish’ metaphorically signify a change in migrants’ lifestyle in the diaspora. Hence, such a category of individuals is using social media to create an imaginary life of them living Nigeria for the diaspora. Another category of individuals consists of those who blamed their existing status on Nigeria socio-economic and political backwardness. Some of these individuals express their view based on the poverty and hardship level in the country. In other words, these individuals are not totally against the diaspora but have considered their inability to meet the rising social mobility of their equals in the unsupportive environment. For instance, the high rate of poverty and unemployment in the country especially among the youths provides a convenient platform for embarking on legal and irregular migration. This is because youths deprived of socio-economic and political power find it difficult to resist the temptation of migration. Another Twitter hashtag read thus:

You look at those ‘back then and now’ broad pictures and know how appalling what this shit hole does to its own people. Nigerians literally prosper everywhere except Nigeria. Truth is even foreigners stands a better chance at prospering in Nigeria. SHAME!! (Twitter Comment, posted 6th March, 2021, accessed, 28 April, 2021)

Nigeria is killing people menh. No be say most of this then and now people get billions for account o, it’s just the working system and peace of mind. Nothing like say government owe you or run you scam. Or fuel price increase. Smh. Twitter Comment, posted 5th March, 2021, accessed, 28 April, 2021)

So happy about these then and now pictures I’m seeing bruh…Nigeria has a way of letting its hardship show on your face. Not having any of that please Twitter Comment, posted 4th March, 2021, accessed, 28 April, 2021)

The researchers also made some interviews on the influence of social media on migration decision making to complement the above thesis. Our respondents reported various information on how social media influences migration decision making among youths. One the respondents in Turkey stated that what she learnt about social media which further influences her decision to migrate was her exposure to necessities of life in the diaspora. According to George

Its shows that the state of wellbeing in Nigeria is unpleasant, undermined and unproductive compared to life here abroad. An average Nigeria becomes exposed through social media and eventually realise they have been living a complicated life all through. Hence, their decision to migrate begins. (George, 25th April 2021)

Besides any practical obstacles in the diaspora, our respondent emphasised how exposure to the diaspora socio-economic realities affects individual decisions to migrate. Tabitha account is a clear example of this:

Yes, social media influences migration, youth seeing their pairs on various platforms looking better than them sharpen their brains and they in return want to go for greener pastures. I will Japa cos I know it will be better than this. Quality education, good weather, a better source of income which fits into my schedule, good working system, better health and other facilities. (Tabitha, 25th April 2021)

Another respondent comment broadly captures how social media assisted him in selecting a university in the diaspora even before the ‘then and now’ social discourse. Our participants stated thus:

Before the then and now hashtags on Twitter, social media influence cannot be underestimated. I knew everything about my dream university abroad on social media. I followed their daily updates, download their campus pictures on Facebook and facilities and now, here I am, I made it. Social media reinforces my efforts at securing admission (Ridwan, 17 May 2021)

Conclusion

The main purpose of this study is to contribute to debates about the interconnection between social media and migration. Migration decisions are not done in a vacuum or isolation but are evidence of everyday efforts to achieve meaningful social mobility. The research work was motivated by the twitter ‘then and now’ hashtags which generate a lot of comments and reactions between youth in Nigeria and those in the diaspora. The research shows that social media influences the migration decision-making process through inspiration, screening and sorting, operational and emotional preparation, and post-processing. The main findings of our research showed that in-migration decision making among Nigerian youth, social media such as Twitter, Instagram and Facebook play an indispensable role. This study was exploratory and its main limitation comes from a relatively small interview and Twitter comments used as proof of the thesis


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[xvi] Castles, S. Miller, M.J. (2009). The age of migration – International population movements in the modern world (4th ed.), (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)

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[xxii] Notes: Irregular migrant from West Africa subregion make use of the sea route from Senegal, Mauritania and Morocco to the Spanish Canary Islands, and the land route from the Niger to North Africa to Libya and Algeria, before moving onward to Europe.

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[xxvi]Mora, L.M (2020). Introduction in Mora L McLean, eds., West African Youth Challenges and Opportunity Pathways, Palgrave Macmillan, 2020, 7

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[xxix] Nwalutu, M. O. (2016). From Africa to Europe, youth and transnational migration: Examining the lived experiences of Nigerian migrant youth in Malta (Doctoral thesis). University of Toronto, Canada. Ojeme, V. (2016). 22,500 Nigerians cross Mediterranean Sea, in 2016 says EU. Vanguard Newspapers. Retrieved October 6, 2018, from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/10/22500-nigerians-cross-mediterraneansea-2016-says-eu-2/

[xxx] De Haas, H. (2008). Irregular migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European Union: An overview of recent trends (Vol. 32). Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration.

[xxxi] Aricat, R.G. (2015). Mobile/social media use for political purposes among migrant laborers in Singapore. Journal of Information Technology & Politics 12: 18–36.; Komito, L. (2011). Social media and migration: Virtual community 2.0. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 62(6): 1075–1086.

[xxxii] Aricat, R.G. (2015). Mobile/social media use for political purposes among migrant.

[xxxiii] Thulin, E. Vilhelmson, B. (2014). Virtual practices and migration plans: A qualitative study of urban young adults. Population, Space and Place 20(5): 389–401.

[xxxiv] Mai, N. (2005). The Albanian diaspora-in-the-making: Media, migration and social exclusion. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31 (3), 552

[xxxv] Mai, N. (2004). ‘Looking for a more modern life . . .’: The role of Italian television in the Albanian migration to Italy. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture 1 (1), 3–22.

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